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Programming Patterns — 2026-06-18 16:42 UTC

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Programming Patterns

Programming patterns are names given to frequently recurring design problems. Quite a few people argue that patterns are used as rote memorization and are therefore harmful, or that they were just a passing trend. However, the real advantage of programming patterns is that they reduce the cost of communication.

"Let's extract this into a Strategy Pattern,"

"Let's wrap the external SDK with an Adapter Pattern,"

"A Query Facade works better than a Repository for this query" — statements like these lower the cost of conversation.

This document is not a comprehensive explanation of every pattern; it is a pattern index for a personal wiki. The detailed content of each pattern is broken out into separate pages. When a pattern document grows too long, it becomes hard to search within a single page, and adding examples and counter-examples later becomes inconvenient.

When looking at a pattern, you should think about the following before focusing on its name.

What changes?
What should be hidden?
What needs to be replaceable?
Where is the boundary that meets the external system?
Does this abstraction actually reduce the cost of change?

Personal note: Patterns carry a slight air of pretension. But then again, so does every professional vocabulary.

The difference between patterns and idioms

A programming idiom is a small, natural expression specific to a particular language. A pattern is larger, typically addressing relationships among multiple objects, modules, or layers.

Category	Description	Example
Principle	Criteria for judgment	SOLID, DRY, YAGNI
Pattern	Solution structure for a recurring problem	Strategy, Adapter, Repository, Retry
Idiom	Natural expression per language	Python `with`, C++ RAII, Rust `?`
Syntax	Forms permitted by the language	`if`, `class`, `interface`

Category: Principle
Description: Criteria for judgment
Example: SOLID, DRY, YAGNI

Category: Pattern
Description: Solution structure for a recurring problem
Example: Strategy, Adapter, Repository, Retry

Category: Idiom
Description: Natural expression per language
Example: Python with, C++ RAII, Rust ?

Category: Syntax
Description: Forms permitted by the language
Example: if, class, interface

Even the same Strategy Pattern looks different across languages.

In Java and C#, an interface is the natural fit; in Python, a callable or duck typing feels more natural. Even when the pattern name is the same, the implementation should conform to each language's idioms.

GoF Patterns

The GoF's Design Patterns is the book that gave names to solutions that had been recurring in object-oriented code.1 The GoF divides patterns into Creational, Structural, and Behavioral categories.

GoF Category	Representative Patterns	Rough Concern
Creational Pattern	Factory Method, Abstract Factory, Builder, Prototype, Singleton	How to create objects
Structural Pattern	Adapter, Decorator, Facade, Proxy, Bridge, Composite, Flyweight	How to assemble objects
Behavioral Pattern	Strategy, State, Observer, Command, Template Method, Iterator, Visitor	How objects collaborate

GoF Category: Creational Pattern
Representative Patterns: Factory Method, Abstract Factory, Builder, Prototype, Singleton
Rough Concern: How to create objects

GoF Category: Structural Pattern
Representative Patterns: Adapter, Decorator, Facade, Proxy, Bridge, Composite, Flyweight
Rough Concern: How to assemble objects

GoF Category: Behavioral Pattern
Representative Patterns: Strategy, State, Observer, Command, Template Method, Iterator, Visitor
Rough Concern: How objects collaborate

GoF patterns remain useful, but in practice they are not sufficient on their own. In web, database, and operational contexts, patterns like Repository, DTO, Retry, Timeout, Circuit Breaker, and Cache-Aside appear far more frequently. Fowler's Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture is the reference that organizes these enterprise application patterns.2

Quick glossary

These are terms that come up frequently in pattern documentation. Rather than lengthy explanations, only enough is written here to keep reading from stalling.

Term	Meaning
Policy	A decision rule that changes depending on the situation. Discount policy, authorization policy, shipping fee policy — anything that answers "how should this be decided?"
Strategy	A swappable algorithm or policy. In the Strategy Pattern, a policy is extracted into an object so it can be replaced.
Logging	Recording what happened during execution. Used for incident analysis, auditing, and debugging.
Caching	Temporarily storing frequently used values in a nearby storage location. It is fast, but introduces cache invalidation problems.
Validation	Checking whether input values or state satisfy a set of rules. Comes up frequently in API requests, form inputs, and domain commands.
Renderer	The role of transforming data into an output form such as a screen, image, HTML, or PDF.
Storage	A place that holds data, such as a file system, database, or cache. Depending on context, it may refer to a physical storage medium or a storage abstraction.
External SDK	Libraries provided by payment processors, SMS gateways, or cloud vendors. If they spread directly into internal code, replacing them becomes difficult.
Legacy API	An API from an older system. It often has a mismatched interface with new code, making it a good candidate to wrap with an Adapter.
Cross-Cutting Concern	A concern that cuts across multiple features. Examples include logging, authorization checks, caching, metrics, and retry.
Domain	The business area the program addresses. For an online store, the domain includes orders, payments, shipping, and products.
DDD Model	A domain-centric model as described in Domain-Driven Design. It prioritizes business concepts and rules over database tables.
Entity	A domain object with an identifier and a lifecycle. Two objects with the same values are still different objects if their IDs differ.
Value Object	An object whose meaning lies in its value rather than its identity. Examples include money, coordinates, time periods, and email addresses.
DTO	Data Transfer Object. A data shape used for API responses or for crossing process boundaries.
Aggregate	A grouping of related Entities and Value Objects into a single consistency boundary. It typically serves as the unit of persistence for a Repository.
API Handler	An entry point that receives an HTTP request, validates it, and forwards it to the appropriate service or command.
Command Handler	An object or function that processes commands that cause state changes, such as "create order" or "withdraw member."
Middleware	A layer that intercepts requests and responses to handle common processing. Logging, authentication, CORS, and compression are common examples.
ORM	Object-Relational Mapping. A tool that maps between objects and relational database tables. It does not, however, mean you can ignore SQL.
RPC	Remote Procedure Call. A communication style in which a function across a network is called as if it were local.
Lock	A mechanism that locks a resource that would be corrupted by concurrent access. Examples include DB row locks, mutexes, and distributed locks.
Idempotency	The property of ensuring that sending the same request multiple times produces the same result as sending it once. Often seen alongside Retry.
Backoff	A strategy of progressively increasing the interval between retries, used to avoid hammering a system that is already experiencing failures.
Fallback	An alternative path used when the primary path fails. Examples include returning a cached value, sending a default response, or calling a backup server.
TTL	Time To Live. The duration a cache entry or token remains valid.
Stale data	Data that is no longer up to date. Caches often trade accepting stale data for improved speed.
Execution plan	The plan a database generates for how it will execute a SQL query. This is where it decides whether to use an index or perform a full table scan.
Transaction	Grouping multiple database operations within a single consistency boundary. It commits on success and rolls back on failure.

Term: Policy
Meaning: A decision rule that changes depending on the situation. Discount policy, authorization policy, shipping fee policy — anything that answers "how should this be decided?"

Term: Strategy
Meaning: A swappable algorithm or policy. In the Strategy Pattern, a policy is extracted into an object so it can be replaced.

Term: Logging
Meaning: Recording what happened during execution. Used for incident analysis, auditing, and debugging.

Term: Caching
Meaning: Temporarily storing frequently used values in a nearby storage location. It is fast, but introduces cache invalidation problems.

Term: Validation
Meaning: Checking whether input values or state satisfy a set of rules. Comes up frequently in API requests, form inputs, and domain commands.

Term: Renderer
Meaning: The role of transforming data into an output form such as a screen, image, HTML, or PDF.

Term: Storage
Meaning: A place that holds data, such as a file system, database, or cache. Depending on context, it may refer to a physical storage medium or a storage abstraction.

Term: External SDK
Meaning: Libraries provided by payment processors, SMS gateways, or cloud vendors. If they spread directly into internal code, replacing them becomes difficult.

Term: Legacy API
Meaning: An API from an older system. It often has a mismatched interface with new code, making it a good candidate to wrap with an Adapter.

Term: Cross-Cutting Concern
Meaning: A concern that cuts across multiple features. Examples include logging, authorization checks, caching, metrics, and retry.

Term: Domain
Meaning: The business area the program addresses. For an online store, the domain includes orders, payments, shipping, and products.

Term: DDD Model
Meaning: A domain-centric model as described in Domain-Driven Design. It prioritizes business concepts and rules over database tables.

Term: Entity
Meaning: A domain object with an identifier and a lifecycle. Two objects with the same values are still different objects if their IDs differ.

Term: Value Object
Meaning: An object whose meaning lies in its value rather than its identity. Examples include money, coordinates, time periods, and email addresses.

Term: DTO
Meaning: Data Transfer Object. A data shape used for API responses or for crossing process boundaries.

Term: Aggregate
Meaning: A grouping of related Entities and Value Objects into a single consistency boundary. It typically serves as the unit of persistence for a Repository.

Term: API Handler
Meaning: An entry point that receives an HTTP request, validates it, and forwards it to the appropriate service or command.

Term: Command Handler
Meaning: An object or function that processes commands that cause state changes, such as "create order" or "withdraw member."

Term: Middleware
Meaning: A layer that intercepts requests and responses to handle common processing. Logging, authentication, CORS, and compression are common examples.

Term: ORM
Meaning: Object-Relational Mapping. A tool that maps between objects and relational database tables. It does not, however, mean you can ignore SQL.

Term: RPC
Meaning: Remote Procedure Call. A communication style in which a function across a network is called as if it were local.

Term: Lock
Meaning: A mechanism that locks a resource that would be corrupted by concurrent access. Examples include DB row locks, mutexes, and distributed locks.

Term: Idempotency
Meaning: The property of ensuring that sending the same request multiple times produces the same result as sending it once. Often seen alongside Retry.

Term: Backoff
Meaning: A strategy of progressively increasing the interval between retries, used to avoid hammering a system that is already experiencing failures.

Term: Fallback
Meaning: An alternative path used when the primary path fails. Examples include returning a cached value, sending a default response, or calling a backup server.

Term: TTL
Meaning: Time To Live. The duration a cache entry or token remains valid.

Term: Stale data
Meaning: Data that is no longer up to date. Caches often trade accepting stale data for improved speed.

Term: Execution plan
Meaning: The plan a database generates for how it will execute a SQL query. This is where it decides whether to use an index or perform a full table scan.

Term: Transaction
Meaning: Grouping multiple database operations within a single consistency boundary. It commits on success and rolls back on failure.

Structural Patterns

Pattern	Common use cases	One-line guidance
Composition	Policies, renderers, storage, validators	Look here first when inheritance hierarchies grow too deep
Strategy Pattern	Discounts, shipping fees, authorization, sorting, validation	When an algorithm or policy changes frequently
Adapter Pattern	External SDKs, payment processors, file storage, legacy APIs	When preventing an external interface from leaking into internal code
Facade Pattern	Order creation, member registration, payment completion processing	When a simple entry point is needed in front of a complex subsystem
Decorator Pattern	Logging, caching, authorization checks, metrics	When adding extra behavior without modifying the original object

Pattern: Composition
Common use cases: Policies, renderers, storage, validators
One-line guidance: Look here first when inheritance hierarchies grow too deep

Pattern: Strategy Pattern
Common use cases: Discounts, shipping fees, authorization, sorting, validation
One-line guidance: When an algorithm or policy changes frequently

Pattern: Adapter Pattern
Common use cases: External SDKs, payment processors, file storage, legacy APIs
One-line guidance: When preventing an external interface from leaking into internal code

Pattern: Facade Pattern
Common use cases: Order creation, member registration, payment completion processing
One-line guidance: When a simple entry point is needed in front of a complex subsystem

Pattern: Decorator Pattern
Common use cases: Logging, caching, authorization checks, metrics
One-line guidance: When adding extra behavior without modifying the original object

Control Flow Patterns

Pattern	Common use cases	One-line guidance
Guard Clause	API handlers, validation, command handlers	When reducing nested `if` blocks by handling failure conditions up front
Result Pattern	Parsing, validation, domain commands	When failure is part of the normal business flow rather than an exception
State Pattern	Order status, game state, approval workflows	When per-state behavior and transitions become complex

Pattern: Guard Clause
Common use cases: API handlers, validation, command handlers
One-line guidance: When reducing nested if blocks by handling failure conditions up front

Pattern: Result Pattern
Common use cases: Parsing, validation, domain commands
One-line guidance: When failure is part of the normal business flow rather than an exception

Pattern: State Pattern
Common use cases: Order status, game state, approval workflows
One-line guidance: When per-state behavior and transitions become complex

Data Access Patterns

Pattern	Common use cases	One-line guidance
Repository Pattern	Aggregate storage for orders, members, products, etc.	When pushing DB details out of domain code
Query Facade	Admin screens, dashboards, list APIs	When read-only queries are forced to drag along the domain model unnecessarily
Model boundary separation: DTO / Entity / Value Object	Web APIs, external integrations, DDD models	When the rate of change differs among the database, domain, and API response

Pattern: Repository Pattern
Common use cases: Aggregate storage for orders, members, products, etc.
One-line guidance: When pushing DB details out of domain code

Pattern: Query Facade
Common use cases: Admin screens, dashboards, list APIs
One-line guidance: When read-only queries are forced to drag along the domain model unnecessarily

Pattern: Model boundary separation: DTO / Entity / Value Object
Common use cases: Web APIs, external integrations, DDD models
One-line guidance: When the rate of change differs among the database, domain, and API response

Operational Patterns

Pattern	Common use cases	One-line guidance
Retry	HTTP clients, DB commands, message processing	When the failure is transient and retrying may succeed
Timeout	External APIs, databases, RPCs, lock acquisition	When a slow dependency is holding up the entire system
Circuit Breaker	Payment processor APIs, auth servers, remote services	When a failing external dependency threatens to bring down your own server
Cache-Aside Pattern	Product detail pages, configuration values, authorization lists	When the same data is read repeatedly and slightly stale values are acceptable

Pattern: Retry
Common use cases: HTTP clients, DB commands, message processing
One-line guidance: When the failure is transient and retrying may succeed

Pattern: Timeout
Common use cases: External APIs, databases, RPCs, lock acquisition
One-line guidance: When a slow dependency is holding up the entire system

Pattern: Circuit Breaker
Common use cases: Payment processor APIs, auth servers, remote services
One-line guidance: When a failing external dependency threatens to bring down your own server

Pattern: Cache-Aside Pattern
Common use cases: Product detail pages, configuration values, authorization lists
One-line guidance: When the same data is read repeatedly and slightly stale values are acceptable

Practical selection guide

When you see this problem	Start with this pattern
Inheritance hierarchies grow too deep	Composition
A policy or algorithm changes frequently	Strategy Pattern
The shape of an external SDK spreads into internal code	Adapter Pattern
Subsystem call sequences become complex	Facade Pattern
You want to add extra behavior without modifying the original object	Decorator Pattern
Nested `if` blocks grow too deep	Guard Clause
The caller must handle failures directly	Result Pattern
Per-state behavior and transitions are complex	State Pattern
DB details are leaking into domain code	Repository Pattern
Screen queries are forced to drag along the domain model	Query Facade
External calls fail occasionally	Retry + Timeout
A failure in an external dependency is bringing down your system	Circuit Breaker
The same data is read repeatedly	Cache-Aside

When you see this problem: Inheritance hierarchies grow too deep
Start with this pattern: Composition

When you see this problem: A policy or algorithm changes frequently
Start with this pattern: Strategy Pattern

When you see this problem: The shape of an external SDK spreads into internal code
Start with this pattern: Adapter Pattern

When you see this problem: Subsystem call sequences become complex
Start with this pattern: Facade Pattern

When you see this problem: You want to add extra behavior without modifying the original object
Start with this pattern: Decorator Pattern

When you see this problem: Nested if blocks grow too deep
Start with this pattern: Guard Clause

When you see this problem: The caller must handle failures directly
Start with this pattern: Result Pattern

When you see this problem: Per-state behavior and transitions are complex
Start with this pattern: State Pattern

When you see this problem: DB details are leaking into domain code
Start with this pattern: Repository Pattern

When you see this problem: Screen queries are forced to drag along the domain model
Start with this pattern: Query Facade

When you see this problem: External calls fail occasionally
Start with this pattern: Retry + Timeout

When you see this problem: A failure in an external dependency is bringing down your system
Start with this pattern: Circuit Breaker

When you see this problem: The same data is read repeatedly
Start with this pattern: Cache-Aside

Signs of pattern overuse

Creating a Strategy when there is only one variant.
Adding multiple layers of Adapter when there is only one external system.
Wrapping a simple function call in a Command object.
Creating a State Pattern when there are only two states.
Piling DDD, CQRS, and Event Sourcing onto a simple CRUD screen.
Something is named after a pattern but ends up being a massive object that hides responsibility.

To put it textbook-style, patterns are not decorations for showing off skill. They are only meaningful when they reduce the actual change pressure the code is experiencing right now.

Personal note: That said, when explaining code using pattern terminology, it tends to look impressive and clients are inclined to pay more. Even when it is nothing special, it can come across as expertise. The textbook answer is that patterns are not for showing off, but not everything goes by the textbook.

References

[1] Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides. Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software. Addison-Wesley, 1994.https://www.informit.com/store/design-patterns-elements-of-reusable-object-oriented-9780201633610

[2] Martin Fowler. Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture. Addison-Wesley, 2002.https://martinfowler.com/books/eaa.html

[3] Martin Fowler. Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code. 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 2018.https://martinfowler.com/books/refactoring.html https://www.informit.com/store/refactoring-improving-the-design-of-existing-code-9780134757599

[4] Joshua Kerievsky. Refactoring to Patterns. Addison-Wesley, 2004.https://www.informit.com/store/refactoring-to-patterns-9780321213358

[5] Eric Evans. Domain-Driven Design: Tackling Complexity in the Heart of Software. Addison-Wesley, 2003.https://www.amazon.com/Domain-Driven-Design-Tackling-Complexity-Software/dp/0321125215

[6] Vaughn Vernon. Implementing Domain-Driven Design. Addison-Wesley, 2013.https://books.google.com/books/about/Implementing_Domain_Driven_Design.html?id=X7DpD5g3VP8C

[7] Gregor Hohpe, Bobby Woolf. Enterprise Integration Patterns: Designing, Building, and Deploying Messaging Solutions. Addison-Wesley, 2003.https://www.enterpriseintegrationpatterns.com/https://martinfowler.com/books/eip.html

[8] Michael T. Nygard. Release It!: Design and Deploy Production-Ready Software. 2nd ed., Pragmatic Bookshelf, 2018.https://pragprog.com/titles/mnee2/release-it-second-edition/

[9] Brendan Burns. Designing Distributed Systems: Patterns and Paradigms for Scalable, Reliable Services. O'Reilly, 2018.https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/designing-distributed-systems/9781491983638/

[10] Martin Kleppmann. Designing Data-Intensive Applications. O'Reilly, 2017.https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/designing-data-intensive-applications/9781491903063/

[11] Chris Richardson. Microservices Patterns: With Examples in Java. Manning, 2018.https://www.manning.com/books/microservices-patterns https://microservices.io/patterns/

[12] Mark Seemann, Steven van Deursen. Dependency Injection Principles, Practices, and Patterns. Manning, 2019.https://www.manning.com/books/dependency-injection-principles-practices-patterns

[13] Robert C. Martin. Clean Architecture: A Craftsman's Guide to Software Structure and Design. Prentice Hall, 2017.https://books.google.com/books/about/Clean_Architecture.html?id=fwvetAEACAAJ

[14] John Ousterhout. A Philosophy of Software Design. Yaknyam Press, 2018.https://web.stanford.edu/~ouster/cgi-bin/aposd2ndEdExtract.pdf

[15] Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. Oxford University Press, 1977.https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-pattern-language-9780195019193

[16] Microsoft Azure Architecture Center. Cloud Design Patterns.https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/architecture/patterns/

Category: Programming | Software Engineering | Design Patterns | WIKI

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Programming Patterns

The difference between patterns and idioms

GoF Patterns

Quick glossary

Structural Patterns

Control Flow Patterns

Data Access Patterns

Operational Patterns

Practical selection guide

Signs of pattern overuse

See also

References

References